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enjoyed good fame. In the medical family specialized in pediatrics in
the Ming dynasty, Madam Cheng程
nee Fang方
was the daughter-in-law of Madam Cheng程
nee Jiang蒋
. There were a few female doctors, however, who received their training
from their own parent's family. In families that had no son or whose son(s)
would follow other professions, it was possible for the daughter to inherit
the shills. The above mentioned Tan Yunxian learned from her grandfather
and grandmother, for her father's generation changed to an official career
and no one except her would be able to carry forward medical tradition.
Unlike their male counterparts who often learned skills form a certain master with the purpose of setting up their own clinics right after they completed their apprenticeship, women in the profession. Received medical training largely to assist the males in their family by doing some supporting work. One important source of male doctors was those would-be scholars who failed the official examination. This was impossible for females who were not qualified to take the official examination at all. Most male doctors were not from medical families and many officials and learned men studied medicine out of personal interest. Even after they became prominent physicians, they did not rely on medicine to make a living. No such examples were found among female doctors. Family training was the standard mode of education for them and few female doctors were known who received systematic training outside the family. While they might be very skilled in certain medical techniques, they rarely made any theoretical contributions. The extant medical works contributed by them were mostly case records or summaries of their clinical experience. This may be attributed to their limited training.
In contrast to the family-based female doctors, many itinerant female healers were active throughout the land, rendering their service to the bottom of society sometimes in the city but largely in the country, where Confucian ethics had little influence. Few of them received ant formal training. There such a variety of them that no single picture of then can be presented. Some of them were nuns or simply witches. They sold hers, which were often professed as "secret recipes," "magic drugs" or "panacea." They acted as midwives who might assist with abortions sometimes. Among them, midwifery was a stable profession throughout the dynasties. Yet they were among the most despised in the society, usually classified together with fortune-tellers, sorceresses, matchmakers, middlemen, or even procuresses. In novels written in the Ming and Qing dynasties, they were often depicted as women who earned their living by dishonest means.
Although some of them were experienced, midwives generally had little technical competence. They simply could do nothing in cases of difficult labor. There went a saying in the Han dynasty that, during delivery, there was "only one survival after ten deaths." According to Yang Kanghou杨康侯, a physician in the Song dynasty, "there are very few good midwives and death is often the outcome." As was also pointed out by Chen Zhidao 陈治道, the author of safe delivery (Baochan wanquan fang保产万全方) in the Ming dynasty, "it is precarious to risk two lives on a midwife." A steady and experienced midwife might save the life of both the mother and infant, but this is purely chance and the not the consequence of good knowledge and skill. In contrast, a rude and ignorant quack might turn an otherwise uneventful case into a difficult one and, frightened by the unexpected outcome out of her wits, she might even take the opportunity to blackmail the family though death of at least the infant was usually the case. In Supplement to the Classified Medical Records of Distinguished Physicians (Xu mingyi leian续名医类案), one can see an account of a midwife in the Yuan dynasty who broke the arm of an infant leading to its death in the womb. Much criticism was directed at midwives for their lack of technical competence and morality.
Many female healers used witchcraft to deify their skill. During the Song dynasty, a certain Madam Zhang 张 practiced witchcraft while performing acupuncture on her patients. And in the Qing dynasty, Madam Li李 , a female healer in Shunyi顺义 County, was famous for her magic arts as well as her art of healing. With the effects much tauted, she became praised as the "Old Buddha of Western Hills" (Xishan laofo西山老佛), attracting a good many to come to worship her. For fear that this might lead social instability, the authorities eventually executed her on a pretext. Such female witch-healers and common female healers of low standard did great harm to the image of female doctors in general. All these led Xiao Jing萧京, a physician in the Qing dynasty, to conclude: "It is really risky to entrust the midwife with the life of one's wife and son. They have already killed a good many."
Summary
On the basis of biographies and works of roughly eighty female medical workers in ancient China, a brief review and analysis was done of their sociocultural background. Despite their own shortcomings and the criticisms directed against them, and marking allowance for the limitations of the times, they seem to have served their social functions as well as their male counterparts. It remains, however, to find more materials (including sketches and novels as well) to study them further, especially the least represented itinerant healers, from a multidimensional perspective.
Reference
1 Ge Hong 葛洪Baopuzi xialan 抱朴子 遐览juan 卷 19 (Shanghai:Guji chubanshe 古籍出版社1990)，p.148.
2 Chen Menglei 陈梦雷 et al.,Yibu quanlu, mingliu liezhuan 医部全录·医术名流列传"（Beijing Renmin weisheng chubanshe 人民卫生出版社1962)，p.168.
3 Ibid ,p. 174.
4 Ibid ,p.168.
5 Zhou Sheng 周生Yangzhoumeng 扬州梦juan 4 (Shanghai: Wenming shuju 文明书局 1915).
6 Shiji 史记juan 122 (Zhonghua shuju 中华书局1975).p.3144.
7 Yu Jideng 余继登Dian'gu Jiwen 典故纪闻 juan 2,p.30.
8 8 Kou Zongshi 寇宗奭, Bencao yanyi juan 1 (Beijing: Renmin weisheng chubanshe,
1957). P. 48b.
9 Ke shao 柯绍, Xin Yuanshi 新元史， “Liezhuan" 列传", juan 244, p. 4a.
10 Mingshi 明史juan 302 (Beijing: Zhoughua shuju, 1978), p. 7720
11 Tan Yuxian, Nuyi zayan, preface.
12 Ibid.
13 chen menglei et al.,yibu quanlu,yishu mingliu liezhuan,p.343
14 Ibid.p.393
15Hanshu 汉书 juan 97(beijing:Zounghua shuju 1975)，p.3993
16Yang Kanghou 杨康侯Shichanlun 十产论 Zhonggou yijikao rTowers Touchingprettyexposedmomanddaughter No Firmy 2800 Go Out With Exquisite Females female medical workers in ancient chinaj y Go Out With Exquisite Females 1 fTowers Touchingprettyexposedmomanddaughter No Firmy 2800 Go Out With Exquisite Females female medical workers in ancient chinav 1 Go Out With Exquisite Females Out Go Out With Exquisite Females